Monday, October 26, 2015
Sunday, May 17, 2015
Sleep
- a state of conciousness
- less aware of our surroundings
- Conscious
- Subconscious
- Unconscious
Biological Rhythms
- Annual Cycles: seasonal variations (bears hibernation, season affective disorder)
- 28 days: menstrual cycle
- 24 hour cycle: our circadian rhythm
- 90 minute cycle: sleep cycles
Circadian Rhythm
- 24 biological clock
- body temp and awareness changes throughout the day
Sleep Stages
- 5 identified stages
- 90 to 100 mins to pass through the stages
- Brains waves will change according to the sleep stage you are in
- First four are known as NREM sleep
- The fifth stage is called REM sleep
Stage 1
- Kind of awake and kind of asleep
- Only lasts a few minutes, and you usually only experience it once a night
- Eyes begin to roll slightly
- Your brain produces Theta Waves (high amp, low frequency) (slow)
Stage 2
- This follows Stage 1 sleep and is the "baseline" of sleep
- This stage is part of the 90 minute cycle and occupies approximately 45-60% of sleep
- More Theta Waves that get progressively slower
- Begin to show sleep spindles.. short bursts of rapid brain waves
Stage 3 and 4
- Slow wave sleep
- You produce Delta waves
- If awoken you will be very groggy
- Vital for restoring body's growth hormones and good overall health
Stage 5: REM Sleep
- Rapid Eye Movement
- Often called paradoxical sleep
- Brain is very active
- Dreams usually occur in REM
- Body is essentially paralyzed
- Composes 20-25% of a normal nights sleep
- Breathing, heart rate and brain wave activity quicken
- Vivid dreams can occur
- From REM, you go back to Stage 2
- less aware of our surroundings
- Conscious
- Subconscious
- Unconscious
Biological Rhythms
- Annual Cycles: seasonal variations (bears hibernation, season affective disorder)
- 28 days: menstrual cycle
- 24 hour cycle: our circadian rhythm
- 90 minute cycle: sleep cycles
Circadian Rhythm
- 24 biological clock
- body temp and awareness changes throughout the day
Sleep Stages
- 5 identified stages
- 90 to 100 mins to pass through the stages
- Brains waves will change according to the sleep stage you are in
- First four are known as NREM sleep
- The fifth stage is called REM sleep
Stage 1
- Kind of awake and kind of asleep
- Only lasts a few minutes, and you usually only experience it once a night
- Eyes begin to roll slightly
- Your brain produces Theta Waves (high amp, low frequency) (slow)
Stage 2
- This follows Stage 1 sleep and is the "baseline" of sleep
- This stage is part of the 90 minute cycle and occupies approximately 45-60% of sleep
- More Theta Waves that get progressively slower
- Begin to show sleep spindles.. short bursts of rapid brain waves
Stage 3 and 4
- Slow wave sleep
- You produce Delta waves
- If awoken you will be very groggy
- Vital for restoring body's growth hormones and good overall health
Stage 5: REM Sleep
- Rapid Eye Movement
- Often called paradoxical sleep
- Brain is very active
- Dreams usually occur in REM
- Body is essentially paralyzed
- Composes 20-25% of a normal nights sleep
- Breathing, heart rate and brain wave activity quicken
- Vivid dreams can occur
- From REM, you go back to Stage 2
Learning
How do we learn?
- Most is associative learning
- certain events occur together
Three Main types
- Classical conditioning / operant conditioning
- Observational learning / latent learning
- Abstract learning / insight learning
Classical
- Started with Ivan Pavlov
- 5 critical terms
1. acquisition
2. extinction
3. spontaneous recovery
4. generalization
5. discrimination
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
- stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
Unconditioned response (UCR)
- the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
- an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with the UCS, comes to trigger a response
Conditioned Response (CR)
- the learned response to a previous stimulus
Acquisition
- Initial stage of learning
- Phase where the neutral stimulus is associated with the UCS so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit the CR thus becoming the CS
- Does timing matter?
-- CS should come before the UCS
-- They should be very close in timing
Extinction
- The diminishing if a conditioned response
- Will eventually happen when the UCS dows not follow the CS
Spontaneous Recovery
- The reappearen after a rest period of an extinguished conditioned response
Generalization
- The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses
Discrimination
- The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that does not signal UCS
- Most is associative learning
- certain events occur together
Three Main types
- Classical conditioning / operant conditioning
- Observational learning / latent learning
- Abstract learning / insight learning
Classical
- Started with Ivan Pavlov
- 5 critical terms
1. acquisition
2. extinction
3. spontaneous recovery
4. generalization
5. discrimination
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
- stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
Unconditioned response (UCR)
- the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
- an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with the UCS, comes to trigger a response
Conditioned Response (CR)
- the learned response to a previous stimulus
Acquisition
- Initial stage of learning
- Phase where the neutral stimulus is associated with the UCS so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit the CR thus becoming the CS
- Does timing matter?
-- CS should come before the UCS
-- They should be very close in timing
Extinction
- The diminishing if a conditioned response
- Will eventually happen when the UCS dows not follow the CS
Spontaneous Recovery
- The reappearen after a rest period of an extinguished conditioned response
Generalization
- The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses
Discrimination
- The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that does not signal UCS
Memory
- persistence of learning over time through the process of storage and retrieval of information
- 3 parts
Encoding
- processing of info into the memory system
Storage
- retention of material over time
Retrieval
- the process of getting the information out of memory storage
- Retrieval failure: forgetting something, or not getting the info out of storage
Recall vs. Recognition
Recall
- retrieve info from your memory
- ex: fill in the blank test
Recognition
- identify the target from possible targets
- ex: multiple choice tests
Flash Bulb Memory
- A clear moment of an emotionally significant event
Three types of Memory
Sensory
- the immediate initial recording of sensory information stored for just an instant and most info goes unprocessed
Short Term
- memory that holds a few items briefly
- can hold 7 digits
- if not stored here, goes to long term or its forgotten
- AKA working memory
- three parts: audio, visual, intergration of audio and visual
Long Term
- permanent and limitless storehouse of memory
- explicit memories
- implicit memories
Explicit Memories
- episodic memories
-semantic memories
Implicit Memories
- procedural memories
- conditioned memories
Encoding Information
- Primary Effect
- Recency Effect
- Serial Positioning Effect
Spacing Effect
- DO NOT CRAM
- Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve
The way we can encode
- Visual: the encoding of picture images
- Acoustic: encoding of sound, especially sounds of words
- Semantic: encoding of meaning
Constructive Memory
- Memories are not always what they seem
- Elizabeth Loftus
- Constructed memory is a created memory
- Misinformation effect
Forgetting
- Retroactive Interference: new info blocks out old info
- Proactive Interference: old info blocks new info
Storing Memories
- Long term Potential: long lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that results from stimulating them synchronously
-- In other words, they learn to fire together and get better at it, creating a memory
- 3 parts
Encoding
- processing of info into the memory system
Storage
- retention of material over time
Retrieval
- the process of getting the information out of memory storage
- Retrieval failure: forgetting something, or not getting the info out of storage
Recall vs. Recognition
Recall
- retrieve info from your memory
- ex: fill in the blank test
Recognition
- identify the target from possible targets
- ex: multiple choice tests
Flash Bulb Memory
- A clear moment of an emotionally significant event
Three types of Memory
Sensory
- the immediate initial recording of sensory information stored for just an instant and most info goes unprocessed
Short Term
- memory that holds a few items briefly
- can hold 7 digits
- if not stored here, goes to long term or its forgotten
- AKA working memory
- three parts: audio, visual, intergration of audio and visual
Long Term
- permanent and limitless storehouse of memory
- explicit memories
- implicit memories
Explicit Memories
- episodic memories
-semantic memories
Implicit Memories
- procedural memories
- conditioned memories
Encoding Information
- Primary Effect
- Recency Effect
- Serial Positioning Effect
Spacing Effect
- DO NOT CRAM
- Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve
The way we can encode
- Visual: the encoding of picture images
- Acoustic: encoding of sound, especially sounds of words
- Semantic: encoding of meaning
Constructive Memory
- Memories are not always what they seem
- Elizabeth Loftus
- Constructed memory is a created memory
- Misinformation effect
Forgetting
- Retroactive Interference: new info blocks out old info
- Proactive Interference: old info blocks new info
Storing Memories
- Long term Potential: long lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that results from stimulating them synchronously
-- In other words, they learn to fire together and get better at it, creating a memory
Intelligence
- The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
- Socially constructed... can be culturaly specific
Is intelligence one thing or several different abilities?
- Factor Analysis: statisticsl procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test
- charles Spearman ised FA to discover his G or general intelligence
Multiple Intelligence
- Howard Gardner disagreed with Spearmans g and instead came up with the concept of this
- Came up with this by studying savants (condition where a person has limited mental ability but is exceptional in one area)
Gardner's Multiple Intelligence
- Visual/Spatial
- Verbal/Linguistic
- Logical/Mathematical
- Bodily/Kinesthetic
- Musica/Rythmic
- Interpersonal
- Intrapersonal
- Natural
Sternberg's 3 Aspects of Intelligence
- Analytical: academic problem solving
- Creative: generating novel ideas
- Practical: required for everyday tasks where multiple solutions exist
Emotional Intelligence (EQ)
- First called social intelligence
- Ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions
- EQ is a greater predicter than IQ
Brain Size and Intelligence (link?)
- Small .15 correlation between head size and intelligence scores
Brain Function and Intelligence
- Higher performing use less active than lower performing brains
- Neurological speed is a bit quicket
How do we Assess Intelligence?
- Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon set out to figure out a concept called mental age
- By discovering this they can predict future performance
- Help children and not label them
Therman and his IQ test
- Used Binet's research to construct the modern day IQ test called the Stanford Binet Test
- IQ= Mental Age/Chronological Age X 100
Problems with IQ formula
- Doesnt work well on adults
Modern Test of Mental Abilities
- Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) consists of 11 subtests and cues us into strengths by using factor analysis
Aptitude v. Achievement Tests
Aptitude
- Test designed to predict a persons future performance
- Ability for that person to learn
Achievement
- Test designed to assess what a person has learned
Construct Intelligence tests by:
- Standardized
- Reliable
- Valid
Standardization
- Test must be pre tested to a small rep sample of people
- Form a normal distribution or bell curve
Flynn Effect
- Intelligence test performance has been rising
Reliability
- Extent which a test yields consisten results over time
- Split halves or test retest method
Validity
- Extent to which a test measures what is supposed to be measured
- Content validity: does the test sample a behavior of interest
- Predictive Validity: does the test predict future behavior
Intelligence change over time?
- By age 3, a childs IQ can predict adolescent IQ scores
- Depends on type of intelligence (crystallized or fluid)
Extremes of Intelligence
Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores
- Bell curve is diff for Whites v. Blacks
- Math scores are diff across genders and highest scores are for Asian males
WHY? Nature vs Nurture
Test Bias
- Tests discriminate
- Sole purpose is to discriminate?
- Look at the type of discrimination
- Socially constructed... can be culturaly specific
Is intelligence one thing or several different abilities?
- Factor Analysis: statisticsl procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test
- charles Spearman ised FA to discover his G or general intelligence
Multiple Intelligence
- Howard Gardner disagreed with Spearmans g and instead came up with the concept of this
- Came up with this by studying savants (condition where a person has limited mental ability but is exceptional in one area)
Gardner's Multiple Intelligence
- Visual/Spatial
- Verbal/Linguistic
- Logical/Mathematical
- Bodily/Kinesthetic
- Musica/Rythmic
- Interpersonal
- Intrapersonal
- Natural
Sternberg's 3 Aspects of Intelligence
- Analytical: academic problem solving
- Creative: generating novel ideas
- Practical: required for everyday tasks where multiple solutions exist
Emotional Intelligence (EQ)
- First called social intelligence
- Ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions
- EQ is a greater predicter than IQ
Brain Size and Intelligence (link?)
- Small .15 correlation between head size and intelligence scores
Brain Function and Intelligence
- Higher performing use less active than lower performing brains
- Neurological speed is a bit quicket
How do we Assess Intelligence?
- Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon set out to figure out a concept called mental age
- By discovering this they can predict future performance
- Help children and not label them
Therman and his IQ test
- Used Binet's research to construct the modern day IQ test called the Stanford Binet Test
- IQ= Mental Age/Chronological Age X 100
Problems with IQ formula
- Doesnt work well on adults
Modern Test of Mental Abilities
- Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) consists of 11 subtests and cues us into strengths by using factor analysis
Aptitude v. Achievement Tests
Aptitude
- Test designed to predict a persons future performance
- Ability for that person to learn
Achievement
- Test designed to assess what a person has learned
Construct Intelligence tests by:
- Standardized
- Reliable
- Valid
Standardization
- Test must be pre tested to a small rep sample of people
- Form a normal distribution or bell curve
Flynn Effect
- Intelligence test performance has been rising
Reliability
- Extent which a test yields consisten results over time
- Split halves or test retest method
Validity
- Extent to which a test measures what is supposed to be measured
- Content validity: does the test sample a behavior of interest
- Predictive Validity: does the test predict future behavior
Intelligence change over time?
- By age 3, a childs IQ can predict adolescent IQ scores
- Depends on type of intelligence (crystallized or fluid)
Extremes of Intelligence
Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores
- Bell curve is diff for Whites v. Blacks
- Math scores are diff across genders and highest scores are for Asian males
WHY? Nature vs Nurture
Test Bias
- Tests discriminate
- Sole purpose is to discriminate?
- Look at the type of discrimination
Language and thinking
Language
- Our spoken written or gestured words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning
Phonemes
- In a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
- Chug has three phonemes ch, u, g
Morphemes
- In a language the smallest unit that carries meaning
- Can be a word or part of a word (prefix or suffix)
Grammar
- A system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate and understand others
Semantics
- The set of rules by which we derive meaning in language
- Adding ed at the end of words means past tense
Syntax
- The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences
Language Development
- Babbling Stage: starting at 3-4 months, the infant makes spontaneous sounds. not limited to the phonemes of the infants household language
- One-Word Stage: 1-2 year old, uses one word to communicate big meanings
- Two Word Stage: at age 2, uses two words to communicate meanings - called telegraphic speech
Skinner
- Skinner thought that we can explain languge development through social learning theory
Chomsky
- We acquire language too quickly for it to be learned
- We have this "learning box" inside our heads that enable us to learn any human language
Whorf's Linguistic Relativity
- The idea that language determines the way we think (not vice versa)
Thinking Without Language
- We can think in words
- But more often we think in mental pictures
Thinking
Cognition
- Another term for thinking, knowing, and remembering
Concepts
- A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or peopl
- Concepts are similar to piaget's idea of Schema
Prototypes
- A mental image or best example of a category
- If a mew object is similar to out prototype, we are better able to recognize it
HOW DO WE SOLVE PROBLEMS
Trial & Error
- A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
Heuristics
- A rule of thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently
- A short cut (that can be probe to errors)
Insight
- A sudden and often novel realizatipn of the solution to a problem
- No real strategy involved
Obstacles to problem solving
Confirmation Bias
- A tendency to search for info that confirms ones perconceptions
Match Problem
- Fixation: The inability to see a problem from a new perspective
The Jug Problem
B - A - 2C = desired amount of water
- For problems 6 and 7 (20 and 18) there are easier ways than using your formula from your mental set
Mental Set
- A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, esp if it has worked in the past
- May or may not be a good thing
Functional Fixedness
- The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
TYPES OF HEURISTICS (often lead to errors)
Representative
- A rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototype
- Can cause us to ignore important info
Availability
- Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in out memory
- If it comes to mind easily (maybe a vivid event) we presume it is common
Overconfidence
- The tendency to be more confident than correct
- To overestimate the accuracy of your beliefs and judgements
Framing
- The way an issue is proposed
- It can have drastic effects on your decisions and judgements
Belief Bias- Tendency for ones preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning
- Sometimes making invalid conclusions valid or vice versa
Belief Perserverance
- Clinging to your initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
- Our spoken written or gestured words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning
Phonemes
- In a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
- Chug has three phonemes ch, u, g
Morphemes
- In a language the smallest unit that carries meaning
- Can be a word or part of a word (prefix or suffix)
Grammar
- A system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate and understand others
Semantics
- The set of rules by which we derive meaning in language
- Adding ed at the end of words means past tense
Syntax
- The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences
Language Development
- Babbling Stage: starting at 3-4 months, the infant makes spontaneous sounds. not limited to the phonemes of the infants household language
- One-Word Stage: 1-2 year old, uses one word to communicate big meanings
- Two Word Stage: at age 2, uses two words to communicate meanings - called telegraphic speech
Skinner
- Skinner thought that we can explain languge development through social learning theory
Chomsky
- We acquire language too quickly for it to be learned
- We have this "learning box" inside our heads that enable us to learn any human language
Whorf's Linguistic Relativity
- The idea that language determines the way we think (not vice versa)
Thinking Without Language
- We can think in words
- But more often we think in mental pictures
Thinking
Cognition
- Another term for thinking, knowing, and remembering
Concepts
- A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or peopl
- Concepts are similar to piaget's idea of Schema
Prototypes
- A mental image or best example of a category
- If a mew object is similar to out prototype, we are better able to recognize it
HOW DO WE SOLVE PROBLEMS
Trial & Error
- A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
Heuristics
- A rule of thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently
- A short cut (that can be probe to errors)
Insight
- A sudden and often novel realizatipn of the solution to a problem
- No real strategy involved
Obstacles to problem solving
Confirmation Bias
- A tendency to search for info that confirms ones perconceptions
Match Problem
- Fixation: The inability to see a problem from a new perspective
The Jug Problem
B - A - 2C = desired amount of water
- For problems 6 and 7 (20 and 18) there are easier ways than using your formula from your mental set
Mental Set
- A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, esp if it has worked in the past
- May or may not be a good thing
Functional Fixedness
- The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
TYPES OF HEURISTICS (often lead to errors)
Representative
- A rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototype
- Can cause us to ignore important info
Availability
- Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in out memory
- If it comes to mind easily (maybe a vivid event) we presume it is common
Overconfidence
- The tendency to be more confident than correct
- To overestimate the accuracy of your beliefs and judgements
Framing
- The way an issue is proposed
- It can have drastic effects on your decisions and judgements
Belief Bias- Tendency for ones preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning
- Sometimes making invalid conclusions valid or vice versa
Belief Perserverance
- Clinging to your initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Wednesday, April 8, 2015
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
- Nature vs Nurture- the way you were born vs the way you were raised
- Physical Development- focus on our physical changes over time
Prenatal Development
- Conception begins with the drop of an egg and release of 200 million sperm
- Sperm seeks out egg and attempts to penetrate eggs surface
- once sperm penetrates egg, we have a zygote
- Zygote- first stage of prenatal development; lasts about 2 weeks and consists of rapid egg division; less than half of all zygotes survive first 2 weeks; in 10 days the zygote will attach to uterine wall; outer part of zygote becomes placenta
- Embryo- develops from zygote after 2 weeks; lasts about 6 weeks; heart begins to and organs begin to develop
- Fetus- by 9 weeks; fetus by about the 6th month, the stomach and other organs have formed enough to survive outside of mother
Teratogens- chemical agents that can harm prenatal development such as alcohol, STDs and HIV
Healthy Newborns- turn head towards voices, see 8-12 inches from their faces , gaze longer at human like objects
- Reflexes- inborn automatic responses
- Rooting (cheek)- newborn infant is touched on cheek; the infant will turn its head towards the source of stimulation
- Sucking
- Grasping- if object is placed in baby's palm, the baby will try to grasp the object
- Moro (startle)- when startled, a baby will fling his/her limbs out then quickly retract them
- Babinski- baby's foot is stroked, he or she will spread their toes
Maturation- physical growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, regardless of environment
Cognition- all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering
Cognitive Development- Jean Piaget
Schemas- ways we interpret the world around us (concepts)
Assimilation- incorporating new experiences into existing schemas
Accomodation- changing an existing schema to adapt to new information
4 Stages of Cognitive Development
- Sensorimotor (0-2)- experience world through senses; object permanence develops around 6-8 months
- Preoperational (2-7)- begins to use language to represent objects and ideas (think in symbols); egocentric- cannot look at the world through anyone's eyes but their own; conservation- quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance
- Concrete Operational (7-11)- can demonstrate concept of conservation; learn to think logically; understanding of reversibility
- Formal Operational (12+)- abstract reasoning
Social Development
- in about a year, infants develop stranger anxiety
- Attachment- a bond with a care giver
- Konrad Lorenz discovered some animals form attachment through imprinting
- Origins of Attachment- Harry Harlow and monkeys- showed monkeys needed touch or body contact to form attachment
- Critical Period- shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produce proper development
3 types of Attachment
- Secure Attachment- children show some distress when parent leaves, seek contact at the reunion, explore when parent is gone; play and greet when parent is present
- Stranger Anxiety- fear of strangers that infants commonly display; beginning by about 8 months of age
- Separation Anxiety- distress the infant shows when object of attachment leaves; peaks between 14-18 months
3 Parenting Styles
- Authoritarian- strict standards for children's behavior
- Permissive- gives freedom, lax parenting, no rules consistently
- Authoritative- encourage independence; willing to bargain
Stage Theorists
- these psychologists believe we travel from stage to stage throughout our lives
- Siegmund Freud- we all have libido (sexual desire) that travels to different areas of our body throughout development
-Anal Stage (1-3)- libido focused on controlling and expelling waste
-Phallic Stage (3-6)- children first recognize gender
-Latency Stage (6-11)- libido is hidden; cooties stage
-Genital Stage (11+)- libido is focused on their genitals; experience sexual feelings towards others
Adolescence/ Adulthood
- Adolescence- transition period from childhood to adulthood
- Puberty- period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
- Landmarks for puberty- Menarche for girls and first ejaculation for boys
- Adulthood- all physical abilities essentially peak by mid twenties
- physical milestones- menopause- the natural ending of a woman's ability to reproduce; men do not experience anything like menopause
Types of Intelligence
- Crystallized-accumulated knowledge and increases with age
- Fluid- ability to solve problems quickly and think abstractly
5 Stages of Death
- Denial
- Anger
- Bargaining
- Depression
- Acceptance
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